Category Archives: observation

Waves being deflected towards regions of lower phase velocity

Movie of waves being deflected towards regions of lower phase velocity.

We are so used to seeing waves behave in a certain way that we usually don’t stop and think about why waves behave the way they behave.

Imagine a headland with not-very-steep slopes, and wave crests approaching it. Consider now two possible scenarios. In the first one, the wave crests bend around the headland almost as to embrace it. In the second one, wave crests bend away to channel the energy through the deeper waters around it. Which one will it be?

The only difference between those scenarios is that in one case waves are being refracted towards regions of lower velocities and in the other towards regions of higher velocities.

[https://vimeo.com/ 76805199]

Langmuir circulation

We think we observed Langmuir circulation, but we don’t understand the mechanism causing it.

Recently, my friend Leela came to visit Bergen and we went on a fjord cruise to make the most of a sunny October day. We observed foam streaks on the fjord. The structures were long and persistent, and being the oceanographers we are, of course we knew that they had to have been caused by Langmuir circulation.

Langmuir circulation on Østerfjorden, Norway.

But then we started wondering about the mechanism driving the Langmuir circulation. Textbook knowledge tells us that Langmuir cells are spiraling rows with convergences (the foamy stripes) and divergences (in between the foamy stripes) at the surface. They are, according to common knowledge, caused by wind that has persistently blown over the surface for more than some 10 hours, and by Ekman processes. Plus there might be some interaction with waves.

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More Langmuir circulation

But that’s about where my knowledge ends, and I have absolutely no mechanistic understanding of Langmuir circulation. Literature research was unsuccessful (at least in the period of time I was willing to spend on this), a quick poll of my colleagues didn’t help, so now I am turning to you, dear readers: Do you have a simple mechanism for me that explains Langmuir circulation? Please help!

Types of breaking waves depending on steepness of slope – small scale

Video of different types of breakers – small scale.

In this recent post we talked about types of breakers depending on the steepness of the slope. But even on a single stretch of coast line you can easily observe several kinds of breakers. My friend E lend her cabin on an island just outside of Bergen to me and another friend E for the weekend, and just sitting on the rocks we could observe at least two types of breakers.

Different types of “breakers” depending on the slope of the beach. Also see video below where it might become more clear…

In the movie below, you see surging breakers on the first little headland – the water level just raises and falls and no breaking occurs – whereas in the small bay behind the headland and on the next headland the slope is much less steep and here spilling breakers develop. Spilling breakers can also be seen about halfway through the movie on the right hand side beach. Isn’t it awesome how you can see so many concepts on the smallest scales once you start looking for them?

Waves breaking depending on steepness of the slope

Waves breaking on slopes of different steepnesses.

Depending on a slope’s steepness, waves can break in very different ways. On nearly horizontal beaches, spilling breakers develop. On steeper beaches, plunging breakers, the kind of breakers that form the tunnels that people surf in, form. And on very steep beaches, the breakers don’t actually break, but surge up and down.

Types of breakers developing on beaches depending on the beach’s slope.

This can be seen on  the large scale when different beaches are known for different kinds of breakers, and one impressive example are Oahu’s North Shore plunging breakers that my friend Tobi took me and a couple of friends to see in 2010.

Plunging breakers on Oahu’s North Shore in September 2010.

 

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Another plunging breaker on Oahu’s North Shore. See surfer for scale.

More awesome breakers were to be seen on the Big Island a couple of days later:

Plunging breakers on Big Island in September 2010.

And of course I have movies of those breakers for you, too, first Oahu and then Big Island:

 

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge above sea level in Iceland.

On my recent trip to Iceland, I had to seize the opportunity to take pictures of plate tectonics at work. Imagining oceanic plates drifting apart is quite difficult, and Iceland is one of the few places in the world where a mid-oceanic ridge reaches above the water level.

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A (in red) on the European plate side, A (in blue) on the American plate side, both walking down a rift valley.

We first went to Thingvellir, but since I wanted pictures with no wandering tourists on them except for us, we had to continue the search for the perfect rift valley.

I don’t really know all that much about plate tectonics, but from what I read in various places, the plates here don’t converge continually, but in episodes. Apparently, the last big event and subsidence of the valley floor occurred with an earthquake in 1789.

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E investigating a rift valley

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E and A in a rift valley for scale

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Just beautiful

Geysers

Photos and movies from geysers on Iceland.

I already talked about hydrothermal activity in this post. But then after writing it, we went and did the golden circle tour and now I have even more images and movies!

First, this is what the field looks like in which all the hot springs and geysers and what have you are located.

In this field, there are different tastes of hot springs. Some are just hot, others clearly boil.

Some are small geysers.

And then there is the big geyser. As you will notice, I got a bit movie-happy. But – in contrast to most other tourists – we actually figured out how you can see whether it is likely to erupt soon or not. And then we found the sign explaining it…

So this is what it looks like from up close.

And there will be more when I’ve figured out how to rotate a movie.

Hydrothermal springs

Hydrothermal springs that you can visit without a deep-sea submersible.

When teaching about hydrothermal springs, I usually use a video a friend of mine took of hydrothermal vents on the mid-Atlantic ridge on the WHOI submersible Alvin. But being on Iceland now, there is much better material available which students can even go and experience themselves.

In the Blue Lagoon close to Reykjavik.

I am too chicken to take my camera under water in the Blue Lagoon to film the hot springs, but there are other hot springs all over Iceland that are less scary, for example this one that my friend Astrid found in the middle of a meadow.

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View from the top into the hot spring – do you see the bubbles breaking the surface?

And here I even dared take my camera under water.

View of the hot spring under water – that’s where the bubbles come from!

Granted, this is not quite as impressive as a black smoker or the Blue Lagoon. But the water in the whole little lake was warmer than about 40 degrees Celsius, and the hot spring is sitting randomly in a field. That’s hand-on geothermal heating for you!

Interference of waves.

Movie on wave interference – two wave fields arriving perpendicular to each other, interacting and leaving.

When talking about waves, it is often difficult to explain that wave heights of different components of a wave field can be added to each other to give a resulting wave field, but that each of those components continues to travel with its own direction and speed and comes out of the wave field basically unaltered. Students learn about constructive, destructive and complex interference (see image below), but it is hard to realize that those interactions are only momentary.

Constructive, destructive and complex interference of waves.

When I was on my way up to Isafjördur to teach CMM31, my friend Astrid and I happened to find the perfect example for the phenomenon described above. We were in Gardur in southwest Iceland and took a sunset walk to the lighthouse.

Old lighthouse in Gardur, southwest Iceland.

The lighthouse is located at the end of a pier and we observed a spectacular wave field. Two distinct fields were meeting each other at an almost 90 degree angle, interacted and left on the other side still clearly recognizable.

Two wave crests meeting at approximately 90 degree angle.

The waves met, interacted, and left the area of interaction. Watch the movie below to get an impression!

Early stages of ice formation

Some photos to illustrate the early stages of ice formation.

When I was showing my ice formation pictures the other day (also in this post), I realized that even though I talk about ice forming needles first, I had never actually taken pictures of that. So when I went down to the fjord this morning to look at the ice that formed over night, I took a couple of pictures.

Firstly, this is what the fjord looks like right now:

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Isafjördur, one Saturday morning in September. You can see that there is ice in the foreground and open water starting somewhere behind the sailing boat moored in the fjord.

When you look more closely at the ice, you can see needle-like structures.

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The blue-and-yellow boat is aptly called “Frosty”.

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Closer look at the ice on the fjord – needle-like structures are visible.

Since there is not only ice on the fjord, but also on the ground, I decided that I did not feel like trying to get down to the ice/water to take better pictures of ice on the fjord. I am planning to go swimming later, but in a hot spring rather than in a cold fjord!

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Ice on a puddle outside the teacher’s apartment in Isafjördur – look at the needles!

On a puddle outside the teacher’s apartment in Isafjördur, I could take pictures of what I wanted to show with much less of a risk for my health. See the needle-like structures?

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Needle-like structures on a puddle in Isafjördur.

On another puddle I found ice that shows the needles even more clearly.

So why is it easier to show needles on puddles than on the fjord? Well, for one it is much easier to get close up and personal. And then it is also easier for larger needles to form on puddles – on the fjord there will always be some movement due to waves, so forming needles get broken apart and it is much more difficult for needles to form in the first place. However I see a blog post coming up where I demonstrate that in the freezer. But that will have to wait until I’m back home and can use my own freezer and equipment. Stay tuned!

Internal waves in the atmosphere

A photo of internal waves in the atmosphere.

Internal waves exist on the interface between fluids of different densities. In the ocean they are mostly observed through their surface imprint. In the tank, we could also observe them by looking in from the side, but this is hardly feasible in the ocean. But luckily vision is easier in the atmosphere than in the ocean.

On our research cruise on the RRS James Clark Ross in August 2012, we were lucky enough to observe atmospheric internal waves, and even breaking ones (see image above). This is quite a rare sight, and a very spectacular one, especially since, due to the low density contrast between the two layers, the waves break extremely slowly.

It is really hard to imagine what it looked like for real. This movie shows the view of Jan Mayen – the volcano, the rest of the island and then the atmospheric waves. Please excuse the wobbly camera – we were after all on a ship and I was too excited to stabilize properly.